The "consensus"
The history of radio in Italy, are inevitably intertwined with the construction of the "consensus" the Fascist regime.
The most recent historiography that has addressed the problem of the roots of fascist power in a mass society, there is substantial agreement in interpreting the "consent" scheme as the result of a combination of elements of coercion and persuasive elements.
Repression is expressed in a work of political disintegration of society and the closing of any alternative means of transmission of messages capable of forming opinions and disseminate unauthorized.
The period from '22 to '26 is characterized mainly by the use of enforcement mechanisms aimed at the dispersal of any organized opposition and cancellation, with the special laws of '26, political pluralism, stifling ' public anti-fascist. During this period, the tools of persuasion are themselves elements apparatus repressive as the use of force prevails over the direct and indirect anti-fascists on the people, force or coercion essential to the consolidation of fascism.
In the subsequent period from '26 to '30 continues the work of breaking down what remains of the pre-Fascist politics and fascism deprives people of any freedom, as they are created and strengthened all the fascist political organizations and unions, the pillars of ' building dictatorial. In this phase, the coercive elements still prevail on the instruments of persuasion, namely the consent to the scheme is mostly forced.
When the work of demolition and Social compression, the scheme provides the complete reorganization of the social forces in new forms and structures, through the Ministry of Corporations, the Charter of Labour establishes the social policy of fascism. It is not only the working class to be framed: between '26 - '30 is a fascist of the entire population through a variety of organizational, with special attention towards the younger generation. The National Opera Balilla claims a monopoly on the fascist youth is introduced in the text of state schools and teachers in elementary and middle schools are obliged to the oath, proceed in parallel with the University of fascism with the formation of Fascists and later University Groups for teachers university fires the oath.
"At this time, it follows that lasts another ten years until the outbreak of World War II and which has within it a break represented by the Ethiopian empire and the proclamation in 1936, when the scheme seems to achieve the maximum consensus consistent with the continuing liabilities or implied considerable hostility in the areas of population and the massive repressive apparatus MasterClasses after the experiences of the twenties through the launch of the new criminal codes of the two texts only police, strengthening and the reorganization of the political police and the secret (the Ovra) "(1).
And 'So as long as you strengthen the mechanisms of persuasion to obtain consent functional totalitarian rule over the masses. Alongside typical repressive apparatus of dictatorial regimes throughout the two decades we are developing and perfecting the modern techniques of organization, communication and information that provide an outlet to the growing fascism in society to enclose it within a monolithic system, virtually impervious to external influences "(2). The new techniques covered by the summons are particularly evident in the instruments of mass media, which during the fascist dictatorship are just upgraded and modernized to the maximum. Information Radio and film is one of the new means of mass communication (3) more useful to the regime. Start the regular dissemination of radio news, the media involved as a result of political disintegration and easily vulnerable citizens from propaganda.
When the building collapsed completely in 1943 Fascist Italy had an organized system of stations and radio networks.
"In reality, the potential value of radio as a vehicle of propaganda and cultural standardization was immediately not clear to Mussolini. But once accepted its full implications, the fascists proceeded to develop and exploit the radio making it a vital instrument of their policy and their cultural work "(4). We must take into account the fact that just in the same years in which consolidated the political power of Mussolini on the Italian state, was developed at the same time as the radio communication system (5). When fascism came to power, however, Italy did not yet possess a radio network of large size, there was still no broadcaster who worked continuatio and radio could be considered experimental.
In Italy, the radio became a means of mass communication during the 30s (6), years of maximum consensus reached by the alleged scheme. In January 1928 the government granted a monopoly of all IEE radio broadcasts in the peninsula. By 1930, every major city had its own station and, since 1933, all major programs were broadcast on national network. In 1935 the regime tried to supply radios to rural areas also include the peasants in the circuit of national consensus.
"To expand the listening area, which continued to be limited to the urban middle class-central regions, the government saw to many devices that were installed, with its speakers, all in the headquarters of the Party organizations (starting from homes of the beam), the recreational club, schools, offices, barracks and in major public places. To achieve walks of life even gave farmers an Institution rural radio. This broad plan for the dissemination of listening stations assured ample opportunity for the fascist regime of planning consent and psychological mobilization of the masses, as is evident especially during the war in Ethiopia between 1935 and 1936 and, subsequently, when Italian intervention in the English Civil War and the side of Franco's forces. On the other hand, to make permanent the work of persuasion and totalitarian indoctrination through the radio channels, was established by a decree of 26.09.1935 (converted into Law 01/09/1936) supervision of the programs' EIAR was led by the Minister press and propaganda "(7). The passage of information
radio under the direct control of the Ministry for press and propaganda was due to two external events: the rise of National Socialism in Germany, and the war in Ethiopia, which mobilized the whole system of fascist propaganda (8).
\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Compared to the previous two companies, the Italian colonial war in Ethiopia boasted a preparation for political, military and psychological far more accurate, in which the organization became a critical issue of consent and invested in the first place, as well as the ruling classes in their entirety, the same masses>> (9).
At this stage the role of information broadcast was re-evaluated. Only the radio was able to spread the political message with immediacy and the simultaneous reception of it throughout the country.
With the transfer of radio programs under the direct control of the Ministry for press and propaganda, radio became an integral part of the consent fascist organization. A direct this ministry was called Galeazzo Ciano (10).
Cyan, since 1933, as head of the press, had made certain studies on the problems of radio and cinema and Mussolini suggested to create a special division for the two sectors, was in favor of that the press office to assume direct control of broadcasting (11).
With the war in Ethiopia, the regime, he perfected the propaganda war, so that the entry in 1940 into the war did not catch the unprepared EIAR.
main goal was control of the fascist regime of Italian cultural life, political and administrative tool for this objective was the Ministry of Popular Culture, which focused his attention on the relationship between culture and the masses, producing through the three basic media: press , radio, cinema a deep convergence of culture and propaganda.
This objective was the basis of another assumption of the intrinsic scheme, namely the total integration of all citizens in a single national experience and fascism as a totalitarian system succeed based on ability to organize a systematic social control at both individual and group.
Complementary to the problem of cultural integration was an attempt to create a mass culture, seeking to end the monopoly of the traditional cultural outlined the basis of upper-middle class. The regime aspired to bring the culture of the dispossessed classes, workers, farmers, encouraging the popular enthusiasm for reading, for the stage by introducing key to consensus building, radio and cinema in the country.
"The mass for me is nothing but a flock of sheep until it is organized. Not at all hostile. Only deny that it can govern alone. But if you need to hold her lead with two reins: enthusiasm and interest "(12). Was fundamental to that objective, then Mussolini's ingenious idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an undersecretary for the press and propaganda, then the Ministry of Popular Culture, the pillars of Mussolini myth factory, the construction of which Mussolini himself was interested in putting the "head of the main media men able to cultivate and nurture an uncritical worship of the leader and pounding" (13).
What particularly the fascists accused the liberal state was the lack of nationalization of the masses, because of this lack of discipline of Italian workers and political disorder, the main purpose of the national revolution was precisely to do to join the masses to the nation state.
In the early twenties the meaning of the "nationalization of the masses" was interpreted as an authorization by the team in black shirts to scratch workers with beatings, then we must bear in mind that until the mid-twenties, the means of mass communication were insufficiently developed for the scheme would be fully exploited to inculcate the principles and values \u200b\u200bof fascism discipline, obedience and struggle: believe, obey and fight. Also lacked social institutions and intermediate devices that could be converted for the purpose, and this deficiency was the legacy of the liberal capitalist state which had not been able to train people capable of writing and reading are crucial for the support of civic culture. Why the organization became the main element of the scheme to build a consensus: to organize an institutional base that guarantees the cultural control, organize and to persuade reluctant to shake the apathetic, organize to reduce class conflicts, organize your life social inclusion through a range of social activities, from sports to the methods of bringing up children.
organization in the broadest sense of the masses was essentially a necessity imposed on the leader to deal with a still very strong popular resistance, conditioned by the great industry which claimed "the clearly fascist principle of hierarchy and discipline in all economic and social relations "(14).
The fascists began to think about cultural issues in a concrete, specific political crisis following the assassination, by the fascists themselves, the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti. Following that event, the opposition parties accused Mussolini and his followers to be directly responsible for the crime, calling for the resignation of the government fascist feeling so threatened Mussolini announced in a speech to the House the establishment of fascist dictatorship and the suppression of all freedom. The Matteotti murder thus marks the end of the liberal state and the beginning of the consolidation of the fascist regime.
In fact, there was Mussolini by a sort of pre-emptive move to deal with the opposition and indeed in '23 had passed a series of decrees aimed at ensuring government control over newspapers and magazines, as Mussolini knew journalist well use in positive and negative press, and its ability to influence public opinion. These experiences were useful in controlling the crisis policies that are more acute and indeed during the Matteotti crisis, the Minister of the Interior widely used decrees to the seizure of the opposition press. Mussolini's press office was enough to serve as a press agency, with oversight responsibility Italian and foreign press. So it was the drama of the Matteotti crisis environments to highlight the importance of the problem of fascist control of culture.
The next move of the system were suggested by the need to control the intellectuals, to eliminate dissent and to obtain membership of the intelligentsia in favor of the regime, which the Congress of Fascist intellectuals, held in Bologna in 1925, argued that in Italy no culture could exist outside of fascism. After the manifesto against Croce in defense of liberal doctrine and believed that "Fascism is a bizarre and incoherent mixture of abhorrence and Retching sterile culture to a culture devoid of its premises" (15), Mussolini took note of the need to put Careful monitoring the national culture through the creation of the National Fascist culture, under the chairmanship of Giovanni Gentile. The institution-based Gentile philosophy, aiming at the formation of an organic national consciousness and the creation of the new Italian was the first systematic program of mass propaganda launched by the fascist government. The Institute's activities consisted of lectures, conferences, concerts, museum visits, language courses, educational programs and activities of the party.
was later created the Royal Academy of Italy, the most famous cultural institution of fascism, to which Mussolini gave instructions to the mass media have the greatest respect and deference. In fact this second cultural institution was used to impose the fascist authorities on high culture, in fact after the Academy concentrated his energies almost exclusively to political and cultural propaganda.
parallel with the creation of the Institute and the Academy, began the Fascist pre-fascist cultural institutions, the Scala of Milan and the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Dante Alighieri, the Italian League Morale, the Institute for the History of Renaissance and other cultural institutions minors, were placed under state control and turned into tools of fascist propaganda.
in the field of mass communications, the government instituted in mid-1924, the Italian Radio Union Film Union, through the National Research Council is carried out a careful control of the Italian scientific and technological research, to the thirties that body played an important role in the technological development of radio. The next step for
precise control of the cultural life was the union of intellectuals, gathered in a national confederation of syndicates of professionals and artists and the Confederation of Entertainment, based on the theory that union, the intellectuals, should be regarded as employees of the State as the state gave them the job, why was not the purpose of trade unions to safeguard the interests of the categories, but to guide their professional activities. Concretely, the unions had no autonomy, but they were tools in the hands of the regime and anyone who wanted to pursue a profession was required to enroll in the union, with specific requirements such as the fascist card and evidence of conduct contrary to the national that is was a method to eliminate the anti-fascists from any area of \u200b\u200bcultural life. The scheme blackmailed with the weapon of economic need and the right to work making an intellectual class employee of the State, which had to adapt to the cultural needs of fascism.
At the same time the action of social conditioning and consolidation of fascist went through a series of programs for the control of the youth groups to educate the young Italian fascist ideals and standards.
control youth group was hired by a young leader of the party with the National Opera Table, university groups Fascists, and the younger age groups Combat whose function was to get moral education, and spiritual warrior. The initiative more markedly fascist nationalization was the militarization of youth and was later introduced in the younger age groups to the obligation of premilitari instructions, with the result that the platoons of young people look more or less fascist gangs of the dead squads. Mussolini himself was cautious about this type of training and young people even if they accepted the military service, but did not accept the weekly hours of pre-military training.
However, if the Fascist regime did not succeed completely in order Italian youth to make the most militarized, managed to steer much of the sport through the sponsorship of sporting activities, based on the idea that the production of samples would be essential to the prestige of the nation, which uses sport for fascism and totalitarian unpatriotic, considering it as an efficient means to bind the young to the laws and customs, and provide distraction and relief workers. Most of the fascists considered athletics not only as a means of physical and moral development of youth, but especially as a lifestyle in keeping with the spirit militaristic fascist.
In reference to the issue of consent, necessary to introduce a category much more suited to the methods of fascism: coercion, in the sense of manifestation of the repressive apparatus of the state and the regime, the means of mass communication, the cultural repression of dissent. Being in a state of political monopoly characterized by a single party regime, it must necessarily consider coercion as the decisive element in order to exercise dominion over the masses otherwise indifferent or even hostile.
The first phase of the conquest of political power, constitutional (1919-1930), in fact, was based on the destruction of the liberal state and its most important institutions, with the removal of instruments and institutions opinion-forming ___ public parties, trade unions, newspapers, associations ___, replaced by a system of power that has its center in the appearance of the bureaucratic and repressive state, re-organized to defend the regime. Upon completion, there is the propaganda machine of proselytism, organizations designed to follow people through their lives.
Notes
( 1) Nicola Tranfaglia, "Italian Labyrinth. Fascism, anti-fascism, historians ", ed. New Italy, Florence, 1989, p.. 98
(2 ) Simona Colarizi, "The opinion of the Italian under-43 regime.1929" , ed. Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1991, p.. 3.
"Among the systems of training and activation of the consensus made by the regime at the mass level in the new perspective in which the beginning of the thirties he was now placing Mussolini's fascism, as well as those more properly as a specific school, mass organizations, trade unions, the party is particularly important in the field of propaganda, were carried through the press and radio in the design of the Fascist Italian company policy of national education and mass culture had begun to take an important role.
Franco Monteleone, "The Italian radio during the Fascist period" , Marsilio, Venice, 1976.
(3 ) "Two forces of the nascent state - two" youth ", we might say - occur in Italy in the '20s, and, meeting them at that early stage, they take you and undermine each other: they are the fascist and radio. "Isnenghi Mario, " A radio station in every village ", AA.VV. "The Radio, the story of sixty years. 1924 / 1984 ", ed. ERI, Torino, 1984, p. 71.
(4 ) Ph.V. Cannistraro, "The manufacture of consent. Fascism and the media ", ed. Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1975, p.. 225.
"Mussolini, who earlier had not shown much interest in radio, he realized over time, even for the great response that had caused some radio broadcasts in other countries, the importance that the new medium could propaganda cover for the action of the regime. " Valerio Castronovo, "business model" , AA.VV. "The radio, the story of sixty years 1924 / 1984" , ed. ERI, Torino, 1984, p. 76.
(5 ) "Radio saw light in the middle of the process of radicalization of the new authoritarian power, when the fascist ruling class stood in dramatic terms the problem of control of public opinion to overcome the crisis of credibility caused by the murder of Matteotti. "Antonio Pope, " Political History the radio in Italy ", ed. Guide, Naples, 1978, Vol I, p.. 22
(6 ) Edward Tannenbaum, "Experience fascist" , ed. Murcia, Milan, 1974
(7 ) Valerio Castronovo, "business model" , in AA.VV., "The radio, the story of sixty years 1924/1984 ", ed. ERI, Torino 1984, p.. 76.
(8 ) Franco Monteleone, "The Italian radio during the Fascist period" , ed. Marsilio, Venice 1976.
The rise of National Socialism was seen as a competitor competitive, with powerful tools for the manipulation of consensus, so that: "It 's now come the time to centralize these services - said a reminder - because under the pressure of National Socialist propaganda already proving to be an organization that no economy and clever enough, we must defend our positions to avoid creating misunderstandings and especially formidable prevent the characteristics of thought and action Mussolini could be smuggled under the label NAZI (ACS Ministry of Popular Culture, 1933, busta 155, fasc. 10, \u0026lt;\u0026lt;Ufficio PRINTING>> , even in F. Monteleone, op. cit. p. 88.)
(9 ) E. Accountants, "The political and social history" in History of Italy, Vol IV, by the unit to today , Volume III, Einaudi, Torino, p. 2243.
(10 ) Antonio Pope, "Political history of radio in Italy" , ed. Guide, Naples, Vol 2 nd, 1978
(11 ) "inaugurated the practice of sottopporre Ciano Mussolini to the permits required by EIAR direction on major programs, such as the Chronicles of the scheme, which were aired in 1934, "in F. Monteleone, op. cit. , P.. 89.
(12 ) Nicola Tranfaglia, op.cit.
(13 ) Nicola Tranfaglia, op.cit. p.. 55
(14 ) Victoria De Grazia, "Consensus and Mass Culture in Fascist Italy. The organization of the After Work ", Bari, Laterza, 1981, p.9
(15 ) Ph.V. Cannistraro, "The manufacture of consent. Fascism and the media ", Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1975, p.. 21.
0 comments:
Post a Comment