Rome and the world
If the management of power, the Fascist regime did not in the cultural politics inside the expected results, however, earned in the first decade of its existence a remarkable success in presenting their favorable image to other countries through a massive campaign. In this goal, the radio was only one of the instruments adopted by the scheme for the purpose, to achieve which was used every means available, from print to film, publications and even tourist agencies. Fascist propaganda abroad was the aspect on which the regime invested its greater ability to penetrate and to which he had most of the credibility who knew how to win (i).
The reason for the success you can highlight nell'intuito Gaetano Salvemini: "In Italy could be the subjects swallow everything he wanted, as he had exterminated all opposition. Outside of Italy could not break their heads.
had to conquer them. And I won a lot, if not all "(ii).
"It is no coincidence that EIAR direct broadcasts to foreign countries to develop information to coincide with the emergence of radio news and current affairs. Radiopropagande of origin for foreign countries is, in most need for purely political "(iii).
The method of propaganda was the same that was used in, ie make sure that should be presented only one side of the reality of the country, so the policy implementation in Italy was also practiced by the regime to win the favor of public opinion abroad. In this sense, propaganda became an element of fascist foreign policy, at least until the military disasters of the '41-'43 did not reveal to the world the bluff on which it was based.
It 'hard to provide the exact time of birth of EIAR addressed to an international audience, as there was a definite plan nor the awareness of the role of radio for overseas (iv). The steps taken in
During the 30's were only a response to external stimuli, or an attempt to counteract the action of the fascist propaganda. It can be used as the symbolic date for the beginning of radio for overseas on 1 January 1931, when Mussolini spoke into the microphone of Radio Rome a short speech in English for the American public and broadcast in the United States and Canada (v ), the broadcast opened with the words of the leader of the international contacts of the Italian radio.
However, it remains an isolated incident, which did not follow any clear political program, which must be added that the facilities EIAR and the structure of the institution did not allow disseminate digital still well short of the border, only emissions of Prato Smeraldo (vi) after 1930 could intercontinental distances.
After the transmission of 1 January 1931 the station of Prato Smeraldo had contributed to spread the messages of Marconi, Marinetti, Farinelli, Marpicati and intellectuals from around the world on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the scheme in October '32 (vii ).
course from birth to the Italian radio was heard abroad, but the interest related to music broadcasts.
The first timid timid references to political importance in broadcasts to foreign countries will have in 1928 when it was decided by the Higher Committee of Vigilance Broadcasts on the construction of a short wave station in Rome, whose purpose was precisely to come to national programs in America and the Italian colonies in Africa (viii).
EIAR The first original action in the international arena was the birth of Radio Bari (ix). The first radiated emissions from Radio Bari, from August 15, 1933, were in the Albanian language.
It was a modest program of economic information organized by the Chamber of Commerce Italian-east of Bari (x). These transmissions were handled by an Albanian journalist: Sopoti Mazar.
of a more distinctly political broadcasts were directed towards the Balkans and Arab countries. In 1934
Bari Radio began broadcasting to the Arab countries, and soon his appointments three times a week with news, music and various conferences, became well-known (xi).
Bari was the first Arab broadcaster around the Mediterranean basin. She was born to respond to the demands of Libya and other Arab-language broadcasts, and in fact EIAR intervention in the Arab world remains the most original aspect of radio propaganda abroad at that time.
Other forms of international presence of the Italian radio between '34 and '35 is made up of the news in some European languages \u200b\u200band the use of directional shortwave facilities for live TV broadcasts in America. In early 1935, intensified broadcasts to the United States. At transmissions bound for the Americas is trying to strengthen relations with the Italian community and governments of the new continent is also trying to give a "
's image completely transformed from what the immigrants had in memory" ( xii).
the imminence of the Ethiopian conflict broadcasts to foreign countries were also extended to East Africa during the conflict and the various programs were stepped up to become a newspaper: they were nothing but a reproduction of
programs broadcast to the country.
The Ethiopian conflict was preceded by a massive propaganda that accompanied the dispute between the Company Nations and the Italian State. During the escalation of foreign policy in the colonial sense of Mussolini, a number of concerns were the Italian public in the spirit of adventure on the need for Ethiopia. While there was relative stability of the regime, the other beginning to show early symptoms of malaise and discontent, especially among the masses. In contrast what we were trying to transform the acquiescence of the years of economic crisis in a state of permanent tension public, accession emotional climate of war. This was to give a turn to the quality of consenso.In this stage, the radio was reevaluated. Only because it could allow immediate dissemination of the political message and the simultaneous reception of it throughout the country.
"The speech that the leader spoke 2 October 1935 on the war against Ethiopia, a commentary in the setting of expectations and a pledge of fact, had completely different and new compared to previous events. Until then he was hit on the radio the task of the simultaneous playback of pure oratorical performances of the leader. This time the role of radio had changed. It had become an essential and indispensable component of the event. For the first time the fascist leader addressed directly to the entire country, the large audience to enhance the national collective image of a people to listen: "Twenty million people are now collected in
squares throughout Italy. It 's the most gigantic demonstration that the history of mankind memories. Twenty million, but one heart, one will, a decision alone. This event is to signify that the identity between Italy and Fascism is perfect, absolute and unalterable. "It was the recognition of the central role of radio in determining the very way in which the fascist regime was recognized and mobilized. The radio assured the identity between Italy and fascism. The breadth of the report simultaneously, but even more, the speed with which the radio system had worked, the collaboration between central policies and EIAR and especially the link between organizations of the system peripherals and terminals occasional broadcasting had passed the most stringent test "(xiii).
is emerging as the 'empire' fascist radio: the Balkans, the Middle and Far East, North Africa and Eastern Europe on the one hand, the two Americas on the other. One of the first measures of Galeazzo Ciano, as an undersecretary of Press and Propaganda, was the coordination and encouragement to the spread of short-wave radio bulletins in English, Italian and German. For the international part of the EIAR stands, also by order of the hierarchy of the regime, journalists By employing native speakers and some cultural figures of individual countries. But in First, the quality of reports for external left to be desired. So
expressed Gigi Michelotti, director of Radiocorriere "with a reporter of Turin's" People's Journal ":" radiouditori in Germany when I listen to the radio station of Milan EIAR can not help but laugh. The transfer is made in a German so poorly translated that makes you laugh [...] More than a drawback is a disgrace "(xiv).
As regards the type of information transmitted in different languages, on the one hand there is the emphasis on the primacy of Italian fascist, the other to the identification and encouragement of pro-fascist forces.
Back in '34 the subordination of the interests of the information system was noticed abroad, a radical criticism of the system's fascist propaganda in Spain (xv) and play a little too rhetorical in the broadcasting StatiUniti (xvi).
With the new historical fascist Italy that Mussolini had assigned, the broadcasts to foreign countries had the voice of Rome.
In general, all TV broadcasts to countries in the Mediterranean and the Arab world, after 1936 represented a significant element of all fascist propaganda radio station, now called the appearance a growing interest in international politics.
fact, the English Civil War propaganda apparatus mobilized the the radio, so that the Foreign Minister said a plan to broadcast in English and Catalan to broadcast stations in Milan, Rome, Florence and Genoa.
Propio from Spain, where the Italian embassy was trying to encourage pro-Fascist elements, which put an anti-fascist broadcasts originated in the hierarchies of the alarm system. But they are not only opposing voices to be heard by radio, because other stations are antifascist be broadcast in various parts of Italy.
This first detection of its anti-fascist danger in an area dominated by the control scheme is probably due to the decision to move to the counter radio, for an organization of interfering transmissions hostile, with broadcasts of Radio Verdad that for nearly two years formed a major activity of the radio abroad. The broadcasts have been included as coming from an illegal English station called "Radio Verdad" (Truth) xvii. The preparation of the news was given to the English character recommended by the Embassy of Spain.
This initiative led to a further draft issued two other stations in Turin, in order to counter the two stations are judged in red Spain, Barcelona and Madrid, the project was not realized because Radio Verdad had a great success and also because the EIAR could not commit so many hours of broadcasting only the English public, even though it was a strong concern for the actions of the Italian Red English broadcasters, who with their anti-fascists in Italian news more threatened than any other opponent of the fascist management agreement over the radio.
Radio Verdad is well to have a dual function: on one side acted as a nuisance to issuers of Republican Spain, on the other action taking place in the ranks of red propaganda.
Radio Verdad methods of propaganda were the usual media fascists: the clash between civilization and barbarism, defense of traditional values \u200b\u200band religious atheism against the Bolshevik and anarchist.
The clash between Italian and English broadcasters represented
one of the first cases of war for radio, who made his dress rehearsal ahead of the second world war.
Italy's participation in the war of fascist General Franco made the radio to other countries and especially for Spain, not just a special field of propaganda abroad, but an essential element of international support and credibility of the regime inside the .
broadcasts of Radio Verdad played a major role in informing the public English almost exclusively in competition with broadcasters part of fascism. After several weeks of activity Radio Verdad had aroused much enthusiasm, especially in Catalonia, so that managers Franco tried to manage broadcasts directly, asking that they were prepared to Salamanca, and that the services were aired on a local station shortwave and then retransmitted by the various Italian stations.
Italian leaders refused, even to a greater exploitation of the situation, which is becoming more useful in foreign policy
Besides the services of military news and military policy drawn from official sources, Radio Verdad used matches Italian newspapers, but more the radio news to Franco were necessary weapons and aircraft that the system sent them, along with Hitler's Germany, to justify the fight against Bolshevism. The huge propaganda campaign which was mounted in the two totalitarian states against Bolshevism and the Third International had significant political and moral effects across Europe, and did not fail to affect even the Holy See (xviii).
Radio Verdad was not the only station made illegal by the Fascist regime.
As part of the reaction to the anti-Fascist radio propaganda, in particular to that community, and that was part of a wider plan of the Agreement Against. On the evening of March 26, 1938, the International began to sound broadcasts by Radio Moscow, issuing anti-Stalinist. The management of anti-Stalinist propaganda was given to Dr. Thomas Napolitano, "expert" of the Soviet world. The project was based
on an imaginary party illegal, but anti-Stalinist-Leninist, the clear intent of trying to weaken the PC from the Soviet Union. Radio Moscow announced himself as the voice of the party of the union of the liberators (Soyuz Osvobozdenija) (xix), whose program, with references Leninists, gave the new party some ideas of fascism. The issuer
deceive international public opinion, which was believed to be in front of a real opposition antistaliniana. But how much of this REACHED in the Soviet Union is hard to say, but one thing is sure, according to what brought the international press: the Soviet government worked to distort during transmission and its activity was carefully followed by the senior echelons of the Soviet, and its emissions could easily be broadcast in a wide area of \u200b\u200bthe USSR. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Radio Moscow broadcasts to resume suspended again in 1940 (xx).
Since 1938, the climate is characterized by the pre-war propaganda, for years, those who see the complete alignment of fascist Nazi Germany (xxi). Radio broadcasts in 23 languages \u200b\u200bwere spread across all continents (xxii).
In January 1939 began broadcasting the "Free Corsica". it was broadcasting anti-French sentiments and to provoke riots were part of a clear plan annexationist Italy, which was ably not to touch the hidden spring of the spirit of the people during Independence (xxiii).
Most of the Italian radio propaganda effort was made between 1939 and 1943, and was directed to Arab countries (xxiv): Radio Bari (xxv) became famous for his live TV broadcasts in Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq, , Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco.
With these broadcasts are trying to exploit the anti-colonialist and anti-imperialist sentiments of the indigenous peoples referred to the British and French rule, making it appear in the full light of the liberating forces of the Axis (xxvi).
It was not easy to stand up to competition from foreign broadcasts in Arabic.
"Defects a preliminary, technical issues, use of Arabic literature often are not always easily understood by the people of North Africa, made it very difficult indeed the effectiveness of propaganda, since 1940, found in British broadcasting, issued by a Radio London and Radio Daventry strong competitor ......" (xxvii).
One of the characteristics of the sound wave radio is its international dimension, and several radio companies had set their own propaganda about the "world house" that the apparatus offered to radio listeners.
Italian broadcasting station had also placed great emphasis on foreign programs and the fascists did not show any kind of International concern over the radio, so that in 1934 and 1935, "Radiocorriere" reported the details of the conversations in foreign languages \u200b\u200bprovided by the Soviet stations.
Between the '35 - '36, coinciding with the Ethiopian conflict and the English Civil War, the radio listening is growing at rates significantly: it was due, and the constant search for first-hand news about relatives in the army and to the need for full information on the actual performance of the operation of war (xxviii).
The most evident effect caused by the increase of listening radio was "a noticeable change in the habits of the Italian evening": "[...] How far away are the days when a family home evening pass merrily enough for a chat, a cup of tea, a cake, [...] and some music. [...] But still a good radio back home in a pleasant way to spend hours a happy evening. It happens that as you turn the magic button, the radio news in track, catch a flight track of a few other types of transmission: opera, comedy, concert, conversation, commentary. Captured the wave that was sought, heard what they wanted to hear, that passage in the case heard by the curiosity and desire. We return to that point of the indicator scale of the wavelength on which we had stopped at the moment ... and maybe we will stop for all evening, delaying the release that was scheduled [...] Rome, Paris, London, Berlin, one after another, if you please, to talk round the mouth of the speaker "(xxix).
But the journalist" Radiocorriere "did not realize the danger he ran from the monolithic system of these forms of collective listening.
The play also caused increase in the adoption by the Ministry for Press and Propaganda, prevention measures and ban on listening to foreign radio stations, which were taken in October 1935, it forbade the listening to foreign stations in public places (xxx). which affects the audience that included foreign languages.
E 'in these years that sprout the beginnings of what, during the Second World War, will be known as the' mass eavesdropping. "
| years | Defendants | sentences (in months) |
| 1935 | 1 | 7 |
| 1936 | 8 | 36 |
| 1937 | 77 954 | |
| 1938 | 21 | 28 |
| 1939 | 2 | 26 |
| Repression of listening (xxxi) | ||
The lack of a real popular product grows listening to the collective group and the proliferation of clandestine listening centers, the higher the subterfuges in order to buy up the necessary equipment, evading not only to the fee subscription, but also the supervision of the police and fascist
"Since the funds do not allow everyone to have a radio ___ reported an unnamed militant anti-fascist party in a document of ___ and even those who have it can mass invite friends because of sustained policing, then you come up with all sorts of found to remedy this misfortune. The most common is to go through a reseller radio, buy it and make him believe we have it to lend for ten or fifteen days after the course is reported. Finally, there are many improvised radio technology, it is not uncommon to see these pieces with a radio engineer would not be served anything, install a radio that serve this purpose nicely [...] The fact is that the interest in following the ___ Spain made of ___ of the workers and peasants, always larger than the radio show, has worried the authorities and greeted him take tough measures. This is prohibited in public places, broadcasting, and in homes where one person owns the radio is prohibited from inviting friends to listen "(xxxii).
The radio gave the possibility of a play not only tissue, but varied and custom tuned to the foreign stations and radio stations of the first anti-fascist propaganda.
Until 1936, the anti-fascist movement underestimated the great strength of radio propaganda inside the country.
In early 1936, he was Carlo Rosselli, leader of the Justice and Freedom "in the direction to use the medium of radio as a vehicle for anti-fascist propaganda. He had met several times with Luigi Longo suggesting a concerted propaganda between "giellisti and communists who have been based on the provision of printed materials and radio equipment to a large number of exiles to encourage you to send in Italy the opposition. But Longo did not yet believe the time for preparation, if only propaganda of insurrectionary movement in Italy rejected the plan and (xxxiii). Yet the idea of \u200b\u200b
Carlo Rosselli was not without value, in fact they were just the Communists adopted the use of a radio broadcast for propaganda purposes.
With the start of the English Civil War, anti-fascism made its voice heard on the radio. The broadcasts of Radio Milano, issuer Communist, were captured in Italy in October 1936. Radio Milan claim was misleading because they wanted to believe the Fascist authorities that the issuer was in Italian territory (xxxiv).
time of transmission, between 22.15 and 23.00, was more conducive to listening. Radio Milano always concluded that its broadcasts: "Comrades, friends, fellow citizens, auditors, our daily output is over. Comrades, friends remember your classmates, your friends, your neighbors, who every night at around 22.45 place the radio emission of the Communist Party of Italy, Radio Milano, emitting at a wavelength of 28 meters. Make known to all Italians and the time the wave of our emissions in Organized [...] Italy hearing of our broadcasts. Since we can not give you our address please send us your feedback and your suggestions at our magazine, "State Worker, Rue d'Alsace, 25, Paris, or write to us directly by sending letters to the leadership of a communist party in a democratic country. [...]" Xxxv. The state radio in Madrid and the Generalitat of Valencia and Barcelona hosted the Radio's voice of anti-leaders. "Broadcasts from Spain showed that the Italian anti-fascism had me quickly assimilated the techniques of mass propaganda radio. If in fact there were limitations and flaws in the programs in Italy, broadcasts Spain as a whole proved to be capable of effective use of what Vittorio Vidali called the artillery of the speaker. It does not refer much to the speeches of the characters Most important, as for news and appeals that had made the most consumed fruit technical journalism European radio. The military news filters were skilfully through omission or diversions during the defeat, while they were exploited with great skill the effects of the victories of the Republicans "(xxxvi).
The thing that impressed the audience was the ability to quickly inform the Italian domestic life. Any news about unrest, discontent, unrest was rich in detail. The emphasis was on the subjection of fascism in Hitler's Germany, especially during the Anschluss.
The radio as a means of gaining consent Fascism was transformed into an instrument of propaganda of the anti-fascist movement information. "The English Civil War is of great importance in Italian history. All Italian youth was no contact until July 1936, with the world of progressive democracy.
We say: the Italian anti-fascism was dead Italians it was all down ' foreign, immigrant, or in prison, was in confinement, closed in itself and many of us had never known "(xxxvii). There were only rumors fascist. English broadcasters from all anti-fascism was returning to make its voice after years of silence.
"And, then, to raise anti-fascism in the country, there are also radio Radio Milan and Barcelona ___ Radio ___ take you directly to where the ears of the Italians the hands of opponents.
The eavesdropping of foreign broadcasters is intensifying and radio propaganda is effective immediately, because the news of the face are immediately judged more credible than those disseminated by the regime that states only and is silent on the success of fascist or minimizes sconfitte.Le anti-fascist broadcasts are, however, rich in detail, they speak of the dead, the wounded, prisoners, make it first and last name in the cities and small towns there is always someone who can identify the acquaintance, friend, relative , went to Spain voluntarily in the grid of one or the other "(xxxviii).
With the English Civil War for the first time the radio was used by the opposition. War that showed the first signs of downturn consent to Italian fascist regime.
the F. Monteleone, the Italian radio in the fascist period, ed. Marsilio, Venice, 1976
ii G. Salvemini, Prelude, p.. 263. Iii
F. Monteleone, history of radio and television in Italy, ed. Marsilio, Venice, 1992, p.. 99. "Within hours of scorching the radio news story becomes a powerful weapon of defense and offense, and it suffices to note in this regard Radio activity Strasbourg when, before the advent of Hitler, the French still deluded can finally nail down Germany to all the clauses of Versailles, or the duel between the issuer of Monaco to Vienna before the tragic events of July 1934, or of German propaganda during the plebiscite in the Saar, or the Italian reaction to the attacks of foreign journalists in times of sanctions, or the clash of satellite antennas with the national red ether extended the English Civil War, or the frantic run on the slopes of Daventry Radio Arab Radio Bari, or finally, the bitter controversy lately riaccesesi in German between the issuer and transmitters Alsatian Germans head to Stuttgart. It is not concluded with perhaps the most rapid, direct and comprehensive contribution to the radio the last act of the drama in Austria until the merger of two states in conflict into agreement to one people. "(E. Rocca, Panorama of radio art, Milan, 1938)
iv Monticone A., Fascism at the microphone, ed. Studium, Rome, I978.
v Mussolini's speech was requested in October 1930 by Mr. Scull, an official of the Radio Victor Corporation of America, during his interview with the leader. obtained the consent, were carried out IEE evidence of transmission from Prato Smeraldo, who are well perceived in the United States and therefore subject to retransmission. So on 1 January 1931 short speech of the leader could be transmitted.
you Prato Smeraldo, renamed places with this name aesthetically pleasing in its radio function, is on the way Ardeatina a few kilometers from Rome. From here the two first short-wave broadcasting transmitter with a power of 12 Kw.
vii A. Pope, Political history of radio, 2nd ed. Guide, Naples, 1980.
viii A radio news bulletins daily propaganda for foreign countries was studied in the summer of 1929 and entrusted the journalist Leo Negrelli; broadcasts were done from Roma St. Paul managed by the Ministry of Communications and under the supervision of the office Press the head of the government. They were official and therefore not yet included in the action EIAR.
ix A. Monticone, op. cit.
x A. Pope, op. cit. 2 vol.
Albanian sources of news were the telegrams of Stefani, the material from the Italian embassy in Tirana and economic information provided by the Italian Chamber of Commerce East of Bari 'clear the double bond, with the Italian embassy and the penetration in Albania made by the Foreign Ministry with business circles gravitating around the Fiera del Levante, involved in activities in the Balkan Peninsula.
xi Bari Radio broadcasts consisted of news, music and direct conversations to enhance the progress of Fascist Italy, to illustrate the achievements of the regime in Libya and to provide local information. Even if you did not have a large audience, given the limited audience of underdeveloped countries, the issuer was very Pugliese played in political and economic Arabs. These broadcasts were part of a diffuse pattern closely related to the fascist imperialist policy. No coincidence that the activities of Radio Bari intensively developed during the Italian intervention in Ethiopia (A. Pope, op.cit. 2 vol. P.. 23). Xii
A. Pope, op. cit., 2 vol., p.. 24. Xiii
A. Pope, op. cit., p. 14
xiv G. Island, Turn down your radio, please ...., ed. The new Italy, Florence, 1990, p.. 219. This complaint of the director of "Radiocorriere" gave rise to an exchange of letters with the Director of the Rome office of EIA, ing.Renato Senigallia, by way of apology that stated: "News of the German language is compiled into [...] Italian and translated into German by the Press Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. " A harsh assessment
xv broadcasts in English from Rome was expressed by socialist newspaper "El Socialist" in Madrid. Of course, from another point of view the same charge of Italian propaganda were not satisfied and felt that listening to the broadcasts Spain had failed, perhaps Because the organization but also the quality of news, how to offer her and then to the "I freghismo" of the Spaniards. There was some improvement in listening with the changing time and the commitment of our diplomats and consuls in Spain, but the fascist delusions of the Embassy of Italy in Madrid shows an ultra-fascist mentality ill-suited to support a propaganda prudent and conservative (Monticone A., op. cit., p.. 397).
xvi The type of transmission to the United States did not take into account the public interest: eg. for a special broadcast of 23 January 1935 he asked Mr. A conversation about race in the Italian provinces internal migration, clear evidence of wanting to celebrate a scheme without knowing how to do propaganda. (A. Monticone, op. Cit., P.. 397).
xvii The secret identity of "Radio Verdad" was known even before they start the broadcasts, but that did not stop the project (A. Pope, op. Cit., P.. 75)
xviii F. Monteleone, the Italian radio in the fascist period, ed. Marsilio, Venice, 1976.
xix Party really existed in Russia at the end of the nineteenth century.
xx A. Monticone, op. cit.
xxi October 21 "Axis" Rome - Berlin, May 22, 1939 Signing of the Covenant 'Steel.
xxii Specifically, in English, French, English, Portuguese, Hungarian, Bulgarian, greek, turkish Serbian, Croatian, Danish, Swedish, German, Romanian, Russian, Arabic, Hindustani, Bengali, Thai, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto, and of course Italian. Many of these services, however, remained on paper and had not been practically implemented (F, Monteleone, op. Cit., P.. 154).
xxiii A. Pope, op. cit.
xxiv Where, after the outbreak of World War II, was "played" the big game between the Axis forces and the Anglo-French.
xxv information only need to remember that Radio Bari from September '43 to early '44 was the first and only free radio and democratic in continental Europe. See A. Rossano, 1943: Here "Radio Bari", ed. Daedalus, Bari, 1993.
xxvi F. Monteleone, op. cit. "Particularly hostile to England, the station had a strong response from Puglia in diplomatic circles and British MPs. No coincidence that the Italian broadcaster was opposite [....] Daventry station that was also broadcast in Arabic.
xxvii F. Monteleone, op. cit., p.. 157.
xxviii G. Isola, op. cit.
xxix GS Piccenardi, rehabilitated the house, in "Radiocorriere", n.13, 1936, p.. 36.
xxx The text of the telegram of the Ministry is in the appendix.
xxxi A. Dal Pont-S. Carolini, Italy to the border, national ANPPIA, La Pietra, Milan, 1983.
xxxii anonymous report from Empoli in the Archives of the Communist Party, quoted by G. f.1452 Santomassimo, Antifascism popular "contemporary Italy", 1980, n.140, p.53. Also in G. Island, op. cit. pag.227.
XXXIII. Garosci, History of the exiled, Bari, 1953.
xxxiv The broadcaster from Aranjuez, a town near Madrid. The Ministry of Press and Propaganda and the Ministry of the Interior began a hunt for illegal lockout issuer does not neglect any track, even Switzerland.
xxxv ACS, Min Int Gen. Direction PS [1920-1945], 1937, b.57, f.K1 B11.
"Through the PCI radio increased its area of \u200b\u200binfluence: from that moment the relationship with Italy did not materialize only through the traditional channels of illegal weak party apparatus, but was consolidated with the flow of letters from listeners, only partially intercepted by the police. And 'this the other Accia explosion of enthusiasm mentioned above, and one of the nodes of the so-called "seeding Communist." (G. Isola, op. Cit. P. 234).
xxxvi A. Pope, op. cit., 2 nd, p. 68.
xxxvii E. Vittorini, the English people waiting for the release, "The Polytechnic", 29 September 1945, p.1
xxxviii S. Colarizi, The opinion of Italians under the scheme. 1929-43, ed. Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1991, p.. 232.
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